Steps to reproduce the issue

Rename an image to include @2x in the filename. For example, forest@2x.png.
Select it as an image somewhere in Joomla so it displays on the front end, for example as an intro or full text image of an article.
Ensure email cloaking is enabled.
Navigate to the front end.

Expected result

Image displays normally, like so:

<img src="path-to-image/forest@2x.png" alt="alt text" />

Actual result

The img output is totally broken.

<img src="path-to-image/&lt;joomla-hidden-mail  is-link=" 1"="" is-email="1" first="Z3Jvd3Ro" last="MngucG5n" text="Z3Jvd3RoQDJ4LnBuZw==" base="">
This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it." alt="" width="200px" height="200px" /&gt;

Screenshot:

System information (as much as possible)

Joomla 4.2.7

Additional comments

Many image and vector editing programs will export images with the scale as part of the file name, for example imagename@2x.png, so this is not an uncommon situation. The @ triggers the email cloaking plugin and breaks the image.